PART OF SPEECH
(This Paper was Made To Fulfill The Assignment of Grammar I)
Lecturer : Linda Nurjati, M.Pd.
PBI B / 2011
By :
Nurul Afiyah 1211204088
Oktaviyanti 1211204091
Muniroh 1211204073
Musrida Yanti 1211204074
English Education Department
Faculty of Education and Teacher Training
The State Islamic University of Sunan Gunung Djati
Bandung
PREFACE
X
Alhamdulillah, with Allah’s permission and His mercy, writers eventually paper with the title “PART OF SPEECH” can be completed in a timely manner, but from the author realized that in writingthis paper is so far from perfect. As a result of limited experience and knowledge, but with the way the author really feels it’s the driver to be able moving forward in the travel and explore the science further.
Realization of this report is not independent of the help; guidance and direction pray very valuable from the various parties.
Furthermore, the authors would like to thank and appreciation for Mrs. Linda Nurjati, M.Pd. as the lecturer of Grammar I. Thus, this paper can be completed.
Hopefully this paper could be useful especially for our group and generally for all of us.
Bandung, Marc 06, 2012
(The authors)
PART OF SPEECH
English sentences consist of predication–something is said, or predicated, about a subject. The main grammatical divisions of a sentence are therefore the subject and the predicate.
The central core of a sentence, the part that is absolutelly necessary for a complete sentence, consists of the most important word in the subject (often called the “simple subject”) plus either :
1. A predicating word, which expresses action or some other kind of event. This word is frequently followed by another word that completes the predication (called an object).
Sentence : The boy threw the ball into the water.
2. A linking word, which expresses state or condition. This linking word is always followed by another word which makes the actual predication (called a subjective complement)
Sentence : Mary is a pretty girl.
From the discussion of these part of speech we will see that only nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs have special inflectional and derivational endings, and use special markers for identification. The great bulk of our vocabulary falls into these four parts of speech, and new words enter into these categories only.
NOUN
TYPE OF NOUN
A. TYPE OF NOUNS
Classified by Meaning
Some nouns may belong to more than one of the types given below.
1. PROPER NOUN
Proper noun begins with capital letter in writting. Includes :
a) personal names : Mr. John Smith
b) names of geographic : Holland, Paris
c) names of nationalities and religion : Dutchman, Christianity
d) names of holidays : Easter, Thanksgiving Day
e) names of time units : Saturday, June
f) words used for personification : Nature, Liberty
2. CONCRETE OR ABSTRACT NOUNS
· Concrete : Word of physical object that can be perceived by the senses. We can see, smell, touch the object, example flower, girl.
· Abstract : Word for a concept, it’s an idea that exists in our minds only. Example beauty, justice, mankind.
3. COUNTABLE OR NOUNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
· Countable : Usually be made plural by the addition of –s. Example one girl, two girls.
· Noncountable : Is NOT used in plural. Example coffee, iron, names of school, etc.
4. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Collective nouns is a word for a group of people, animal, or object considered as a single unit. Example :
Ø Audience
Ø Commitee
Ø Governmet
Ø Minority
Ø Class
Ø Crew
Ø Group
Ø Nation
Ø Crowd
Ø Enemy
Ø Herd
Ø Orchestra
Ø Faculty
Ø Family
Ø Jury
Ø Press
Ø Flock
Ø Folk
Ø Majority
Ø Public
B. TYPE OF NOUNS
Classified by Form
1. NOUN COMPOUNDS
The term compound, as it is used for a part of speech, refers to a group of words – usually two, but sometimes more–joined together into one vocabulary unit that functions as a single part of speech.
Noun compounds consist of the following composite forms :
a) Noun + Noun = bathroom
b) Possesive noun + Noun = lady’s maid
c) Adjective + Noun = blackbird
d) Verb + Noun = pickpocket
e) Noun + Verb = lifeguard
f) Gerund + Noun = Livingroom
g) Noun + Gerund = Fortune telling
h) Preposition + Noun = Overalls
i) Verb + Preposition adverb = breakdown
j) Noun + Preposition phrase = son-in-law
FUNCTION OF NOUN
1. SUBJECT OF VERB
Who or what is being talked about.
Example : The girl is resting | The girls are resting
2. COMPLEMENT OF VERB
This completes the prediction after the verb.
§ Direct object : Who or what receives the action of the verb.
Example : We need some money.
§ Indirect Object : A second object to/for which the action of the verb is directed.
Example : Please give me that man some money.
3. SUBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT (predicate noun)
Used after a linking verb to refer back to the subject.
 |
Example : Washington was the first President of the US.
4. OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT
An object following rthe direct object that has the same identity as the direct object.
 |
Example : The country elected Washington President.
5. OBJECT OF PREPOSITION
Completes the idea of time, direction, position, etc., begun by a preposition.
Example : The student sat at his desk.
6. APPOSITIVE
A second noun used after a first one to re-identify the first one.
Example : Mr. John, my lawyer, is very intelligent.
7. VOCATIVE
Usually a proper noun used to draw the attention of the person being spoken to.
Example : John, please come here.
The noun in direct address actually names the “subject” who is asked to perform in a request or a command.
8. NOUN ADJUNCT
A noun is used in adjective position before another noun, the two together forming a noun compound.
Example : They have a swimming pool.
POSITION OF NOUNS
The position of noun is determined by it’s function in the sentence. The blanks in the following sentences indicate the position of nouns as they fulfill different functions. Subject The _____________ is good.
Subjective Complement Mary is a pretty ___________.
(Predicate noun)
Direct Object The child ate his __________.
Indirect object The lawyer sent ______________ a letter.
Objective complement The members elected Mr. Jones _________.
Object of preposition He deposited the money in the __________.
Noun adjunct He bought some gas at the _______ station.
Appositive Shakespeare, a great ________, wrote many fine plays.
Noun in direct address ________, please come here. or Please come here, ____.
While the usual position for a subject is before the verb, in some cases the subject comes after the verb :1. in most question – Does your wife like a candy?
2. after certain adverbials :
a) indicating place – On the hill stood a tree.
b) expressing negation or near-negation – Never (or seldom) have our people seen such a thing.
c) so, such, only – I like candy, and so does my wife.
3. after there – There is a lamp on the table.
Occasionally an object is placed before the subject for greater emphasis – That kind of man I admire above all others.
FORM OF NOUNS
1. INFLECTIONAL FORMS
Nouns in many european languages may be inflected, that is, changed in form, for certain grammatical properties. Usually these changes are made through special endings. Inflectional form of nouns may indicate :
a) gender. Special endings mark nouns as masculine, feminine or neuter, not necessarily according to actual sex.
b) case. Special endings mark nouns according to their function in the sentence – Subject, object of the verb, etc.
c) number. Special endings mark singular or plural nouns.
2. PLURAL INFLECTIONAL FORM
The general rule for writing the plural of English nouns is to add s to the singular form (boy – boys, apple – apples ). However, this rule is complicated because of the many execptions given below.
1) After a sibilant sound spelled as s, z, ch, sh, x, es is added (classes, churces, dishes). However, if final ch is pronounced [k], only is added (monarchs, stomachs, epochs).
2) After y preceded by a consonant, the y is changed to i and es is added (lady – ladies, country – countries). If final y is preceded by a vowel, no change is made (attorney – attorneys, valley – valleys).
3) In one syllable words, final f or fe becomes ves in the plural (wife – wives, leaf – leaves, thief – thieves). However, some such words take the regular s ending (chief – chiefs, roof – roofs). A few words have either form for the plural (wharves or wharfs, scarfs or scarves).
4) After final o, es is sometimes added, especially in some common words (heroes, Negroes, echoes, potatoes). If a vowel precedes the final o, or if the word is term used in music, only s is added (studios, zoos, pianos, sopranos). Sometimes the es alternates with a less common s ending (cargoes or cargos, mottoes or mottos, volcanoes or volcanos).
5) Irregular plurals based on older English may take the form of :
a. an internal change (man – men, foot – feet, mouse – mice).
b. an en ending (child – children, ox – oxen). Brethen (the older plural of brother) is found mainly in religious contexts.
6) The plural has the same form as the singular (sheep – sheep, deer – deer).
7) The singular has the same form as the plural (series – series, means – means).
8) Many foreign words retain their foreign plurals in English.
a) Singular us ending becomes plural i ending (stimulus – stimuli, radius – radii).
b) Singular a ending becomes plural ae ending (larva – larvae, vertebra – vertebrae).
c) Singular um ending becomes plural a ending (memorandum – memoranda, stratum – strata). Some such wordsare used chiefly in the plural (data, bacteria).
d) Singular is endingbecomes plural es ending (crisis – crises, parenthesis – parentheses).
e) Singular on ending becomes plural a ending (criterion – criteria; phenomenon – phenomena).
f) Singular ex or ix ending becomes plural ices ending (vortex – vortices, matrix – matrices).
g) Singular eau ending becomes plural eaux ending (bureau – bureaux, plateau – plateaux).
9) No plural is used for noncountable words such as information, advice, clothing, furniture.
10) Some words ending is s are singular noncountable nouns, especially names of diseasesand fields of study (news, measles, economics). However, when words that name fields of study are used for practical matters, such words are often considered plural – His business ethics are very questionable; The acoustics in this room are not good.
11) Some words ending in s are used chiefly as plurals (ashes, brains, goods, riches). In this group are words for items that have two parts (scissors, spectacles, pliers, trousers).
3. POSSESIVE INFLECTIONAL FORM
A singular noun is changed to possesive form by the addition of ‘s (one boy’s mother). A plural noun becomes possesive by the addition of ‘ alone to the final s (two boys’ mothers). If an irregular plural noun does not already end in s, then ‘s is added for the possesive (the children’s mother). Proper nouns ending in s may take either ‘ or ‘s (Dickens’ novels or, less commonly, Dickens’s novels). With a group of words functioning as a unit, ‘s is placed after the last word in the group (the Queen of England’s throne ; his mother-in-law’s interferences ; everyone else’s opinions).
When used in its customary position before another noun, a possesive noun is often cinsidered as an adjective in function. However, the possesive form may also occur alone without a following noun, in which case it is sometimes regarded as a pronoun.
I want today’s paper, not yesterday’s.
Whose book is this? – It’s John’s.
The possesive form is often used alone to indicate a place of business – at the doctor’s, near the grocer’s). It may also apppear in a “double possesive” with of – a friend of John’s (= one of John’s friends).
DERIVATIONAL FORM OF NOUNS
Derivational forms consist chiefly of special endings that may :
1) change one part of speech to another. This kind of ending is attached to a word that already exists (engage + ment = engagement), perhaps with some change in the original word (destroy + tion = destruction). Sometimes the original word has several derivational endings, the last one of which determines the part of speech (nation + al + ize + ation = nationalization, a noun).
2) distinguish one part of speech from another, without being added to an already existing word (distance – noun, distant – adjective).
The derivational form of nouns consist of the following suffixes.
1. Suffixes changing verbs to nouns :
a. suffixes indicating the state of ________ -ing : -age, -al, -ance or –ence, -(e)ry, -ment, -t, -tion or –sion, -ure.
marriage, arrival, allowance, persistence, bribery,
arrangement, weight, deviation, enclosure
b. suffixes indicating a person who _______-s, or a person who is active in ____, or a person who comes from ____(agent suffixes) : -ant or –ent, -er or –or or –eer, -(i)an or –ariant, -ist
defendant, attendant, manager, governor, auctioneer,
New Yorker, antiquarian, Bostonian, liblarian, typist
c. The suffix –ing, which expresses some of the verbal force of the word to which is attached. Nouns with –ing derivational suffixes often refer to fields of endeavor, or recreational activities (fishing, mining, dancing, engineering), or are used as adjuncts in compounds (swimming pool, ironing board). Some of these –ing words have become so much like other nouns that they may take adjective modification (a good cleaning, excellent hunting) or they may be used in the plural (blessings, weddings).
2. Endings distinguishing nouns from verbs :
Verb Nounbelieve belief
prove proof
live life
defend defense
receive receipt
descend descent
advise advice3. Suffixes changing adjectives to nouns to indicate the state of being ______ : -ity, -ness, -th.
activity, sterility, happiness, usefulness, warmth, strength
4. Suffixes distinguishing noun from adjectives : -ant or –ent adjective__-ance or –ence noun.
intelligent – intelligence, distant –distance,
brilliant –brilliance radiant -radiance
5. Suffixes changing concrete nouns to abstract nouns, to indicate the state of being a ____ : -hood, -ism, -ship.
brotherhood, childhood, heroism, despotism, fellowship, statesmanship
6. Suffixes changing nouns to other nouns, to indicate (1) a doctrine, theory, or school of belief – ism ; (2) a follower or advocate of such a doctrine, theory, or school of belief – ist.
7. The suffix –es, to disthinguish a female person from a male person – waiter – waitress, actor – actress, host – hostess, steward – stewardess.
A very large group of nouns have the same form as verbs. Some examples are –answer, control, cough, dance, defeat, dust, exchange, favor, fight, honor, influence, load, mistake, outline, profit, quarrel, request.
A smaller group of nouns have the same forms as adjectives–average, elastic, equal, ideal, native, principal, public, secret, square, standard.
MARKERS OF NOUNS
A marker as we have already explained, is a structure word that signals the part of speech of a word following it. While markers also point to verbs, adjectives or adverbs that follow, their greatest usefulness is in signaling nouns.
A. Determiners
1. articles
a) indefinite a –an (a pencil, an eraser)
b) definite the (the pen)
2. possesives (my aunt, John’s book)
3. demonstratives (this child, those boys)
4. numbers (four girls, the fifth girl)
5. word of indefinite quantity (some people, more books)
B. Prepositions (in the house, after the storm)
In addition, descriptive adjectives help to “mark” the nouns that follow them (the beautiful painting, a long speech).
VERB
1. TYPES OF VERBS
a. Classified by Complement of Verb
1. Predicating or Linking Verbs
A predicating verbs is the chief word in the predicate that says something about the subject. The predicating word ( or predicator ) has traditionally been called verb of “action” ( babies cry; She wrote a letter), but has actually (for example, I remember him; She needs more money). The term event is probably a more exact way to refer to what is denoted by a predicating verb, and is the term that will be a favored in this book.
A linking verb is verb of incomplete predication; it merely announces that the real predicate follows. The important word in the complement is usually an adjective (The girl is pretty) or a noun (She is a pretty girl). The –ly adverbs of manner (quickly, angrily) are not used with linking verb. The more common linking verbs are appear, be, become, get (in the sense of become), look, remain, seem.
Other verbs like be that may be followed immediately by an adjective are called “linking verbs”. An adjective following a linking verb describe the subject of a sentence, e.g:
The soup smells good.
This food tastes delicious.
The children feel happy.
The weather became cold.
Common verbs that may be followed by an adjective:
· feel, look, smell, sound, taste
· appear, seem
· become (and get, turn, grow when they mean “become”)
2. Transitive or Intransitive Verbs
A transitive verbs takes a direct object (He is reading a book); an intransitive verbs does not require an object (He is walking in the park). Only transitive verbs may be used in passive voice (The book was returned by him quickly). All linking verbs are intransitive.
A transitive verb is a verb that is followed by an object. An object is a noun or a pronoun, e.g:
Bob mailed the letter.
Mr. Lee signed the check.
A cat killed the bird.
An intransitive verb is a verb that is followed by an object, e.g:
An accident happened.
Kate came to our house.
I slept well last night
Common Instransitive Verbs
Agreeloe | Die | Happen | Rise | Stand |
Appear | Exist | Laugh | Seem | Stay |
Arrive | Fall | Live | Sit | Talk |
Become | Flow | Occur | Sleep | Wait |
Come | go | Rain | Sneeze | Walk |
Transitive Verbs
Active : Bob mailed the letter.
Passive : The letter mailed by Bob.
Only transitive verb can be used in the passive.
Intransitive Verbs
Active : An accident happened.
Passive : (not possible)
An instransitive verb is NOT used in passive.
3. Reflexive Verbs
A reflexive verb requires one of thr compound with –self (reflexive pronoun) as its object – express oneself, wash oneself, pride oneself, avail oneself. Some verbs may be used with or without the reflexive pronoun object-He washed (himself) and dressed (himself) quickly. Reflexive verbs often have a non reflexive use also, and can take objects that do not refer back to the subject-She washed the child and then dressed him quickly.
Reflexive pronoun end in –self/selves. They are used when the subject (e.g., I) and the object (e.g., myself) are the same person. The action of the verb is pointed back to the subject of the sentence, e.g:
I saw myself in the mirror.
She saw herself.
INCORRECT: I saw me in the mirror.
Common Expressions with Reflexive Pronouns
Believe in yourself | Kill yourself |
Blame yourself | Pinch yourself |
Cut yourself | Be proud of yourself |
Enjoy yourself | Take care of yourself |
Feel sorry for yourself | Talk to yourself |
Help yourself | Teach yourself |
Hurt yourself | Tell yourself |
Give yourself (something) | Work for yourself |
Intoduce yourself | Wish yourself (luck) |
b. Classified by Form of Verb
1. Auxiliary or Lexical Verbs
Two or more words may be joined together into a single verb phrase that functions as the full verb of the predicate. The first part of the verb phrase is the auxiliary (or auxiliaries), and the second part is the lexical verb (will be, arriving). The lexical verb carries the chief burden of semantic content. The (1) a structural element that marks differences in tense, voice, mood and aspect or that signals questions and negatives; or (2) a semantic coloring such as abilitiy, possibility or necessity (modal auxiliary)
Some verbs used as auxiliaries may also occur independently – be, have, do. Other verbs function chiefly as auxiliaries and must be used in a lexical verb – shall, will, can, must, may, should, would, could, might.
Auxiliaries combine with lexical verbs that are simple (unchanged) form (will open), in –ing form (is opening), or in –ed (was opened). The number of auxiliaries used with a lexical verb varies. A lexical verb may have no auxiliaries (he opens, he opened), one auxiliary (he will open). Two auxiliaries (he has been opening), or three auxiliaries (he may have been pening). Agreement with the subject occurs in the first auxiliary only. Only be, have, do the verbs that may be used independently, can indicate person and number.
2. Finite or Non Finite Verbs
The form for these verbs is determined by the function which the verbs has in a sentence. A finite verbs is a lexical verbs with or without auxiliaries that acts as the full verb in the predicate. It is limited by all the grammatical properties a verb may have – person, number, tense, voice, etc.
Non-finite (or infinite) verbs are incomplete verbs f orms that finction as other parts of speech than verbs. They consist of infinitive forms ( to+the simple form of the verb) and the participal –ing or –ed forms. Thus, in The boy talking to the teacher is my brother, talking is a participle used is a noun (a gerund) used as the object of likes. The non-finite forms, which are also called verbals, are not limited bty person or number, but they have voice and some tense.
2. FUNCTION OF VERBS
The verb functions the grammatical center for the prediction about the subject. As we have seen, it may be a grammatical center expressing mere linkage, or it may be the strongest predicating word in the central core of the sentence. The verb is basic that other functions ( subject, object, complement) are determined in relation to it.
VERB are words that express action or state of being, and they are an essential part of a complete sentence.
There are three types of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs.
ACTION VERBS
Action verbs are words that express action (ex: give, eat, walk, etc.) or possession (have, own, etc.). Action verbs can be either transitive or intransitive.
TRANSITIVE VERBS
A transitive verb always has a noun that receives the action of the verb. This noun is called the direct object.
EXAMPLE: Laurissa raises her hand.
(The verb is raises. Her hand is an object receiving the verb’s action. Therefore, raises is a transitive verb.)
Transitive verbs sometimes have indirect objects, which name the object to whom or for whom the action was done.
EXAMPLE: Jantzen gave Becky the pencil.
(The verb is gave. The direct object is the pencil. [What did he give? the pencil]. The indirect object is Becky. [To whom did he give it? to Becky.])
INTRANSITIVE VERBS
An intransitive verb never has a direct or indirect object. Although an intransitive verb may be followed by an adverb or adverbial phrase, there is no object to receive its action.
EXAMPLE: Laurissa rises slowly from her seat.
(The verb is the word, rises. The words, slowly from her seat, modify the verb. But there is no object that receives the action.)
TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE?
To determine whether a verb is transitive or intransitive, follow these two steps:
1. Find the verb in the sentence.
EXAMPLE 1: Dustin will lay down his book. What is the action? will lay
EXAMPLE 2: His book will lie there all day. What is the action? will lie
2. Determine whether the verb has a direct object. Ask yourself, “What is receiving the action of the
verb?” If there is a noun receiving the action of the verb, then the verb is transitive. If there is no direct object to receive the action, and if the verb does not make sense with a direct object, then it is intransitive.
EXAMPLE 1: Dustin will lay down his book.
Dustin will lay down what? his book. Since the verb can take a direct object, it is transitive.
EXAMPLE 2: His book will lie there all day.
His book will lie what? nothing. It does not make sense to “lie something.” Since the verb does not make sense with a direct object, it is intransitive.
NOTE: Some verbs can be transitive in one case but intransitive in another.
INTRANSITIVE: Becky walked to school. (No direct object).
TRANSITIVE: Becky walked the dog to school. (The direct object is the dog.)
A LINKING VERB connects the subject of a sentence to a noun or adjective that renames or describes it. This noun or adjective is called the subject complement.
EXAMPLES: Jason became a business major.
(The verb, became, links the subject, Jason, to its complement, a business major.)
Lisa is in love with Jason.
(The verb, is, links the subject, Lisa, to the subject complement, in love with Jason, which describes Lisa.)
The most common linking verb is the verb to be in all of its forms (am, are, is, was, were, etc.). This verb may also be used as a helping verb (see next section). Two other common linking verbs, to become and to seem, are always used as linking verbs.
Other verbs may be linking verbs in some cases and action verbs in others: to appear to feel to look to remain to stay to taste to continue to grow to prove to sound to smell to turn
LINKING: Libby appeared happy. (Appeared links Libby to the subject complement, happy.)
ACTION: Deon suddenly appeared. (Here, appeared is an intransitive action verb.)
HELPING VERBS
HELPING VERBS are used before action or linking verbs to convey additional information regarding aspects of possibility (can, could, etc.) or time (was, did, has, etc.). They are also called auxiliary verbs. The main verb with its accompanying helping verb is called a verb phrase.
EXAMPLES: Teju is (helping verb) going (main verb) to Florida.
The trip might (helping verb) be (main verb) dangerous.
The following words, called modals, always function as helping verbs:
can may must shall will
could might ought to should would
EXAMPLES: Tanya could learn to fly helicopters. (Could helps the main verb, learn.)
Janine will drive to Idaho tomorrow. (Will helps the main verb, drive.)
In addition, the following forms of the verbs to be, to do, and to have sometimes serve as helping verbs. (Note: In other cases, they may serve as action or linking verbs.)
am be being do had have was
are been did does has is were
HELPING: Jana is moving to a new house.
LINKING: Jana is ready to go.
HELPING: Dustin did eat his vegetables!
ACTION: Dustin did his homework last night. (transitive verb)
HELPING: Erin has jumped off the cliff.
ACTION: Erin has a good attitude. (transitive verb)
3. POSITION OF VERB
The verb is used after subject, before ab object or complement. The verb appears before the subject in most question, and in sentences or clauses that begin with certain types of negative adverbs.
4. DERIVATIONAL FORM OF VERBS
The number of derivational forms that mark verbs is quite small. Such derivational forms consist chiefly of the suffixes –en, -ize, -fy, -ate, and the prefixes en- and be-. These affixes are added to nouns or adjective, often with causative force.
Some aUxes, in addition to being attached to words, can also be attached to non-words (either stems which do not occur by themselves; or stems which are allomorphs of words, but allomorphs which do not themselves occur as words; or stems augmented by a connector i or u). These are called Class I aUxes. Other aUxes are more limited: they can only be attached to stems which are words (free forms). These are Class II aUxes. Since Class II aUxes are restricted to attaching to words, they are said to attach with a word boundary (#) instead of a simple morpheme boundary (+).
The vocabulary of English, both words and aUxes, is divided into forms that have their origin in Old English (called native) and those that came into the language later, most commonly from French (called foreign).
Affixes that form nouns
from verbs
action nouns
General comment: when an action noun is formed from a verb, most of its syntactic properties are preserved.
The subject of the verb becomes the ’s-marked “subject” of the noun, the object of the verb becomes the “object” of the noun (“objects” of nouns are marked with the preposition of), and so on. For example:
[S Bill reorganized the oUce]
[NP Bill’s reorganization of the oUce]
-ing
native
very productive
Class II
drink#ing, bett#ing, jump#ing, kiss#ing, laugh#ing, print#ing, hous#ing, build#ing
derived from noun: bedd#ing, sheet#ing, carpet#ing
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 2
-ion/ation/ition [-ation might be +ate+ion]
foreign
productive with foreign stems
Class I
rebell+ion, commun+ion
The verb stem usually undergoes a phonological change: attract+ion, express+ion, adopt+ion, act+ion,
execut+ion
Verbs that end with -ate keep the -ate: creat+ion, nominat+ion, negat+ion, decorat+ion, moderat+ion,
educat+ion, authenticat+ion, automat+ion
verbs in -ize take -ation: organ+iz+ation, formal+iz+ation, civil+iz+ation, central+iz+ation,
neutral+iz+ation
Verbs in -ify become -ification: glor(y)+ific+ation, pur+ific+ation, beaut(y)+ific+ation, sanct+ific+ation,
cert+ific+ation, mod+ific+ation
Other examples with -ation: represent+ation, administr+ation, affirm+ation, caus+ation, accus+ation,
conserv+ation, inform+ation, damn+ation, tax+ation, deforest+ation, vari+ation,
continu+ation, flirt+ation (native stem), starv+ation (native stem)
Sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: resumpt+ion, recept+ion, destruct+ion,
prescript+ion, decis+ion, product+ion, persuas+ion, extens+ion, convent+ion, solut+ion,
resolut+ion, revolut+ion, invers+ion
Sometimes the stem is not an independent word: aggress+ion, cognit+ion, nat+ion, sanitat+ion,
illus+ion, compuct+ion, salv+ation
Examples with -ition: repet+ition, add+ition, defin+ition, compos+ition
-ment
foreign
primarily on foreign stems
Class II
agree#ment, advance#ment, abandon#ment, place#ment, state#ment, advertise#ment,
employ#ment
native roots: acknowledge#ment, amaze#ment, fulfil#ment
There also appear to be words with this suUx with stems that are not words: orna+ment, regi+ment, environ+ment, or non-free allomorphs of words: excre+ment. But these are diTerent from the -ment words above because the adjectival suUx -al goes on these words (ornamental, environmental) but not on the ones above (*statemental, *employmental). So this is a Class I -ment, which is a distinct suUx from Class II -ment. If we use the -al test, there are three verbs which take
+ment instead of #ment: govern+ment, develop+ment, judg+ment
-al
foreign
on foreign stems with Wnal stress (except bury); not productive
Class II
arriv#al, acquitt#al, refus#al, deni#al, approv#al, betray#al, tri#al, buri#al
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 3
-ance/ence
foreign
on foreign stems; not productive
Class I
accept+ance, disturb+ance, resist+ance, clear+ance, assist+ance, depend+ence, differ+ence
The verb stem sometimes undergoes a phonological change: prefer+ence
Native stem: utter+ance
Can go on non-words: expon+ence, emin+ence
agent (subject) nouns
-er/-ar/-or
both native (-er) and foreign (-or, -ar)
very productive
appears to be both Class I and Class II, since there are doublets like receptor and receiver. Historically, this
is related to the fact that the aUx is both native and foreign, but the historical distinction does not necessarily
correspond to the contemporary analysis. We will assume that whenever the stem is a free form, the suUx
is Class II.
bak#er, driv#er, writ#er, hunt#er, sing#er, boil#er, wait#er, toast#er, remind#er, stick#er,
command#er, juggl#er, farm#er, act#or, conquer#or, visit#or, creat#or, li#ar, begg#ar
sometimes has other meaning: din#er, sweat#er
sometimes goes on nouns or adjectives: pott#er, New York#er, lif#er [slang term for a prisoner serving
a life sentence]; foreign#er, northern#er
sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: astronom+er, geograph+er
sometimes the stem is not an independent word: butch+er, aggress+or, incis+or. For some words that
used to belong to this type, a verb has been created by back-formation (peddl+er, burgl+ar)
if the stem is a verb in -ate, sometimes the ate drops and sometimes it stays: don+or, nominat#or
sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word, but when that happens the free allomorph may also
combine with the aUx with a diTerent meaning: recept+or—receiv#er, divis+or—divid#er
-ant/ent
foreign
Only productive in technical jargon
Class I
inhabit+ant, defend+ant, serv+ant, inform+ant, consult+ant, pollut+ant, cool+ant
sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: presid+ent
sometimes the stem is not an independent word: merch+ant, ten+ant
sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: oppon+ent
if the stem is a verb in -ate, the -ate drops: particip+ant, stimul+ant, lubric+ant, irrit+ant
patient (object) nouns
-ee
foreign
productive
Class I
appoint+ee, examin+ee, licens+ee, pay+ee, train+ee
for verbs in -ate, the -ate drops: nomin+ee, evacu+ee, amput+ee
for a few cases, it is the subject of the verb: escap+ee, retir+ee
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 4
from adjectives
-ness
native
very productive
Class II
bright#ness, bitter#ness, good#ness, fair#ness, big#ness, fit#ness, righteous#ness,
careless#ness, drunken#ness, fierce#ness, kindhearted#ness, one#ness
-ity
foreign
productive on foreign stems
Class I
divers+ity, odd+ity [native stem]
the stem usually undergoes some phonological change: singular+ity, agil+ity, captiv+ity, sincer+ity,
san+ity, chast+ity, electric+ity, historic+ity, superficial+ity, technical+ity
sometimes the stem is the non-free allomorph of a word: simplic+ity
sometimes the stem is not a word: duplic+ity, felic+ity, fidel+ity, hilar+ity
very productive with -able adjectives,-able+ity becomes -ability: abil+ity, poss+ibil+ity, cap+abil+ity,
believe+abil+ity, vis+ibil+ity, ;
not productive with -ous adjectives, but when they do exist the -ous drops in some words but not in others:
vari+ety, simultane+ity; curi+os+ity, lumin+os+ity
sometimes the suUx is just -ty: certain+ty, safe+ty, sovereign+ty (note British special+ity and American
special+ty)
-th
native
not productive
Class I
The stem undergoes a phonological change: dep+th, wid+th
sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word or not a word at all: leng+th, bread+th
from other nouns
abstract nouns (usually from concrete nouns)
-hood
native
productive, almost exclusively on native stems
Class II
child#hood, neighbor#hood, baby#hood, parent#hood, brother#hood, nation#hood, state#hood,
priest#hood
sometimes the stem is an adjective: false#hood, likeli#hood
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 5
-dom
native
productive
Class II
king#dom, martyr#dom, duke#dom, whore#dom, saint#dom, sheikh#dom
sometimes the stem is an adjective: free#dom
-ship
native
productive
Class II
friend#ship, lord#ship, fellow#ship, dictator#ship, companion#ship, comrade#ship, kin#ship,
workman#ship, statesman#ship
sometimes the stem is an adjective: hard#ship
-y
foreign
only on foreign stems; not productive
Class I
monarch+y
the stem almost always undergoes a phonological change: pira(t→c)+y, confedera(t→c)+y,
democra(t→c)+y, advoca(t→c)+y, presiden(t→c)+y, constituen(t→c)+y, dependen(t→c)+y,
analog+y
stem is sometimes an adjective: excellen(t→c)+y, efficien(t→c)+y, vacan(t→c)+y, lenien(t→c)+y,
bankrup(t→c)+y
sometimes goes on stems which are not words, or are non-free allomorphs of words: luna(t→c)+y,
conspira(t→c)+y; papac+y
Sometimes the suUx is -cy: captain+cy, normal+cy
Affixes that form verbs
from nouns
∅
“zero derivation” or “conversion”
the most productive way to form verbs from nouns
bridge, hammer, ship, nail, skate, spear, cement, butter, ;
-ize
see below, under “from adjectives”
-ify
foreign
not productive
Class I
pur+ify, speech+ify
sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: glor+ify, terr+ify, liqu+efy, beaut+ify [native root]
sometimes the stem is not a word: sanct+ify, quant+ify, cert+ify, mod+ify
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 6
-ate [eyt]
foreign
not productive
Class I
hyphen+ate, assassin+ate
Sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: chlorin+ate
Sometimes the stem is not a word, or is a non-free allomorph of a word: dehydr+ate, pagin+ate,
orchestr+ate
Mostly, though, this is used in verbs derived from Latin (and some others); the stem without -ate is an
allomorph of the stem with -ate. It is debatable whether ate is actually a suUx in these cases. educ+ate,
nomin+ate, contamin+ate, dedic+ate, navig+ate, don+ate, ;
en- (em-)
foreign
not productive
Class I
en+danger, en+list, en+slave, en+trust, en+circle, em+power
Sometimes goes on adjectives: en+large, en+rich, em+bitter, en+able
Sometimes the stem it goes on is not an independent word: em+bark, en+dorse
from adjectives
-ize
foreign
relatively productive
Class I
equal+ize, popular+ize, tranquil+ize, liberal+ize, central+ize, minatur+ize, western+ize,
national+ize, legal+ize
Also goes on nouns: organ+ize, cannibal+ize, critic+ize, burglar+ize, item+ize
Sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: militar(y)+ize, public+ize, romantic+ize;
harmon(y)+ize, agon(y)+ize, apolog(y)+ize, theor(y)+ize, colon(y)+ize, satir+ize
Sometimes the stem is not a word: anglic+ize, hypnot+ize
-en
native
semiproductive
Class II
dark#en, hard#en, thick#en, light#en, wid#en, tough#en, moist#en, soft#en
sometimes the stem is a noun: length#en, fright#en, threat#en, strength#en
from other verbs
reversative
unnative
very productive
Class II
un#lock, un#pack, un#tie, un#do, un#button, un#saddle, un#delete
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 7
deforeign
only on foreign words; productive primarily in technical vocabulary
Class II
de#militarize, de#frost, de#compose, de#segregate
negative
disforeign
only on foreign words; not productive
Class II
dis#allow, dis#obey, dis#trust, dis#agree, dis#like, dis#believe
sometimes has reversative meaning: dis#arm, dis#honor, dis#appear, dis#connect
goes on verbs with the preWx en-: dis#en+tangle
sometimes the stem is a noun or adjective: dis#honest, dis#comfort
other
reforeign
very productive; with few exceptions, only goes on transitive verbs
Class II
means ‘again’
re#form, re#assemble, re#educate, re#organize, re#produce, re#count, *re#go
misnative
means ‘badly’; relatively productive
Class II
mis#lead, mis#understand, mis#manage, mis#print
Affixes that form adjectives
from nouns
-y
native
very productive
Class II
cloud#y, guilt#y, blood#y, thirst#y, craz#y, storm#y, milk#y, dirt#y, mess#y, risk#y, ;
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 8
-ous
foreign
relatively productive, especially with foreign stems
Class I
poison+ous, adventur+ous, danger+ous, fam+ous, treason+ous, hazard+ous, wondr+ous,
glori+ous, vari+ous.
sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: courage+ous, harmoni+ous
sometimes connected to stem with i or u: rebell+i+ous, tempest+u+ous, uproar+i+ous [compound
stem]
sometimes the stem is not a word: ambit+ious, superstit+ious, scrumpt+ious, simultane+ous,
curi+ous, lumin+ous
-ish
native
productive, especially with the meaning ‘approximately’
Class II
fool#ish, fever#ish, Dan#ish, Jew#ish, clown#ish, styl#ish, self#ish, four#ish
sometimes the stem is a verb or an adjective: tickl#ish; green#ish, dark#ish
-al (-ar)
foreign
relatively productive with foreign stems; the form is sometimes -ar when there is an [l] in the stem
Class I
architectur+al, conjectur+al, elector+al, hormon+al, procedur+al, season+al, post+al, pivot+al,
coast+al, trib+al, music+al, logic+al; pol+ar
sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: accident+al, environment+al; circul+ar,
triangul+ar, singul+ar, titul+ar; spectacul+ar
Sometimes the stem is not an independent word: eventu+al, feder+al, later+al, horizont+al, vertic+al,
tempor+al, matern+al; perpendicul+ar, lun+ar
Sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: crimin+al, societ+al, congression+al; popul+ar
Sometimes the stem (either a word or not) is separated from the suUx by i or u: dictator+i+al,
professor+i+al, senator+i+al, editor+i+al, president+i+al, artific+i+al, manager+i+al,
habit+u+al, sens+u+al, spirit+u+al, intellect+u+al, pictor+i+al, vis+u+al; lin+e+ar
-ic
foreign
on foreign stems, productive mostly in technical terms
Class I
Arab+ic
The stem almost always undergoes a phonological change: poet+ic, German+ic, econom(y)+ic,
histor(y)+ic, demon+ic, parasit+ic, democrat+ic, alcohol+ic, ton+ic
Sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: operat+ic, genet+ic, dramat+ic, problemat+ic
Sometimes the stem is not a word: lunat+ic, heret+ic, agnost+ic, anem+ic (anaem+ic), electr+ic
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 9
-ic-al
A combination of the two preceding suUxes
grammat+ic+al, geograph(y)+ic+al, theoret+ic+al, econom(y)+ic+al, histor(y)+ic+al, theatr+ic+al,
morpholog(y)+ic+al (and other ology words), farc+ic+al, bibl+ic+al
Where -ic and -ic-al adjectives both exist, they usually have diTerent meanings (note econom+ic vs.
econom+ic+al; histor+ic vs. histor+ic+al).
-ly
native
not particularly productive
Class II
king#ly, man#ly, scholar#ly, love#ly, priest#ly, friend#ly, coward#ly
sometimes goes on adjectival stem: good#ly, lone#ly, sick#ly
-ful
native
means “full of …”; opposite is -less
not productive
Class II
care#ful, shame#ful, wonder#ful, cheer#ful, skill#ful, success#ful, waste#ful, hope#ful, joy#ful,
help#ful, law#ful
Sometimes the stem is a verb: forget#ful, mourn#ful
from verbs
-ive/ative/itive
foreign
Relatively productive.
Class I
Usually (but not always), if a stem forms an -ive adjective it also forms an ion noun
attract+ive, express+ive, abus+ive, adopt+ive, act+ive
Sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: execut+ive
Verbs that end with -ate keep the -ate: creat+ive, nominat+ive, negat+ive, decorat+ive
Sometimes the suUx is -ative: represent+ative, administr+ative, affirm+ative, caus+ative,
conserv+ative, inform+ative, talk+ative [native stem]
sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: resumpt+ive, recept+ive, destruct+ive,
prescript+ive, decis+ive, product+ive, persuas+ive, extens+ive, punit+ive
sometimes the stem is not a word: agress+ive, cognit+ive, nat+ive, pass+ive, pens+ive, capt+ive,
incis+ive
examples with itive (formed from the same verbs that take ition): repet+ition, add+ition, defin+ition
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 10
-able (also spelled -ible)
foreign
very productive, produces a “passive” adjective with an ‘able’ meaning
As noted below, there are many doublets. This suggests that -able is both Class I and Class II. Often, there
is a diTerence of meaning between the adjective with +able and the adjective with #able; typically, the
adjective with #able has a more strictly ‘able’ meaning: notice the contrast between cómpar+able and
compár#able. Note also that usually the two pairs of the doublet take diTerent negative preWxes; e.g.
in+divis+ible but un#divid#able.
accept#able, agree#able, commend#able, understand#able, corrupt#ible, discern#ible
With -ate verbs, the -ate usually drops: communic+able, demostr+able, negoti+able
With some -ate verbs, both forms exist: cultiv+able (but also cultivat#able), educ+able (but also
educat#able), navig+able (but also navigat#able), toler+able (but also tolerat#able)
Sometimes the stem can be the non-free allomorph of a word, but it is also possible with the free allomorph:
divis+ible—divid#able, percept+ible—perceiv#able, defens+ible—defend#able
Sometimes the stem is not a word: conscion+able, aud+ible, cred+ible, poss+ible, prob+able,
horr+ible
In a few words, the stem is a noun: service#able, marriage#able, charit+able, objection#able
In addition to the cases mentioned above, there are sometimes two diTerent -able adjectives formed from
the same root with diTerent stress patterns: cómpar+able—compár#able,
répar+able—repáir#able, préfer+able— prefér#able.
from other adjectives
negative
unnative
very productive
Class II
un#fair, un#ripe, un#able, un#certain, un#precedented, un#happy, un#reliable
Occasionally on nouns: un#truth, un#ease
in- (im-, il-, ir-)
foreign
productive on foreign stems
Class I
in+comprehensible, in+animate, im+possible, il+legal, ir+religious
Sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: in+finite
Sometimes the stem is a noun: in+fidelity
Sometimes the stem is not a word: in+ept, in+ert, in+sipid, in+vincible, in+grate
Occasionally on nouns which are derived from adjectives: in+ability, in+justice
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 11
Affixes that form nouns/adjectives of “belonging”
-an
foreign
Relatively productive
Class I
Rom+an, Chomsky+an, Tibet+an
sometimes the stem undergoes a phonological change: Elizabeth+an, librari+an
sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: Afric+an, Persi+an, Americ+an
very often, the stem is connected to the suUx with i: Boston+i+an, reptil+i+an, mammal+i+an,
Christ+i+an, Canad+i+an, electric+i+an, grammar+i+an, magic+i+an, phonetic+i+an
sometimes the stem is not a word: urb+an, barbar+ian
Sometimes -arian: disciplin+arian, veget+arian, fruit+arian, Parliament+arian, authorit+arian,
totalit+arian
-ese
foreign
not productive
Class I
legal+ese
Usually the stem undergoes a phonological change: Japan+ese, Vietnam+ese, Chin(a)+ese,
Vienn(a)+ese
Sometimes the stem is a non-free allomorph of a word: Portugu+ese
44166. STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH II: THE WORD Prof. Yehuda N. Falk
Derivational Affixes, p. 12
Latin preWx + stem forms
These words are all made up of two morphemes, a preWx and a stem. E.g. pre+cede
ad con de ex in per pre pro re sub trans
cede accede concede — — — — precede proceed recede succeed —
ceive — conceive deceive — — perceive — — receive — transceive
crete — — — excrete — — — — — — —
duce adduce — deduce — induce — — produce reduce — —
duct — conduct deduct — — — — — — — —
fect aTect — defect eTect infect perfect — — — — —
fer — confer defer — infer — prefer — refer — transfer
Wx aUix — — — inWx — preWx — — suUx transWx
flect — — deflect — inflect — — — reflect — —
flict aVict conflict — — inflict — — — — — —
fuse — confuse — — infuse — — profuse refuse suTuse —
gest — congest — — ingest — — — — suggest —
ject — — deject — inject — — — reject subject —
mit admit commit — emit — permit — — remit submit transmit
mote — — demote emote — — — promote — — —
plode — — — explode implode — — — — — —
pound — compound — expond impound — — — — — —
rive arrive — derive — — — — — — — —
sert assert — desert — insert — — — — — —
side — — — — — — preside — reside subside —
sign assign consign design — — — — — resign — —
sist — consist desist exist insist persist — — resist subsist —
sume assume consume — — — — presume — resume subsume —
test attest contest detest — — — — protest — — —
vene — convene — — — — — — — — —
ADJECTIVE
TYPES OF ADJECTIVE
Determiners
1. Articles _ the, a-an
2. Demonstrative Adjectives_ This, plural these. That, plural those
3. Possesive Adjectives
a. From pronouns – my, your, one’s, etc
b. From nouns – John’s, the girl’s, etc
4. Numeral Adjectives
a. cardinal – four, twenty-five, one hundred, etc
b. ordinal – fourth, twenty-fifth, one hundredth, etc
5. Adjectives of indefinite quantity – some, few, all, more, etc
6. Relative and interrogative adjectives – whose, what, which, etc
Descriptive adjectives
1. Proper adjectives – a catholic church, a French dish, a Shakespearian play
2. Participal adjectives –
a. Present participle – an interesting book, a disappointing experience, a charming view, a trifling gift
b. Past participle - a bored student, a worn tablectoch, a tired house wife, a spoiled child
3. Adjective compounds
a. With participles
1. Present participle - a good looking-girl, a heart-breaking story, a Spanish-speaking student, a Long-suffering widow
2. Past participle – a turned-up nose, a broken-down house, new-born kittens, ready-mades clothes
b. With- ed added to nouns functioning as the second element of a compound. The first elements is usually a short adjective – absent-minded, ill-tempered, tear-sedtined, far-sight
Other ajectives compounds include various syntactic combinations
1. A prepositional phrase – a wall-to wall carpet, a fly-by night scheme, an up-to-the-minute office
2. An infinitive – a hard-to please employer, a never-to-be-forgotten plot, a well
3. Coordinate elements (joined by and) – a life-and-death struggle, a black and blue mark, a hit-and-run driver
FUNCTION OF ADJECTIVE
The adjective modifying a noun or pronoun
1. Adjective modifying a noun
a. The small boy
b. The boy is small
2. Adjective modifying a pronoun
a. Everybody else
b. He is small
Words that generally function as adjectives sometimes serve as other parts of speech :
1. As nouns
None but the brave deserves the fair
a. objects of prepositions, in idioms
by far, in general, for long, at random.
2. As adverb. These modify :
a. Verbs
Hold tight, break loose, make unesay
b. Adverbs
Better off, far ahead, close by, straight ahead
c. Other adjectives
Boiling hot, dead drunk, stark naked, dark red
d. Prepositional phrases
Deep in her heart, early in the year, long before noon
POSITION OF ADJECTIVE
*In relation to nouns
Adjective preceding
a. Noun Head (Pre-position)
A nearby church, the then Miss Smith, a bygone day
Adjective following
a. Noun Head (Post-position)
1. In set phrases coming from old French – court martial, the body politic, postmaster general. Also in phrases possibly influenced by such French expressions – accounts payable, the best car possible
2. with unit of space or time -- a well fifteen feet deep, a ruler twelve inches long, two months ago.
3. place or time words that usually function as adverbs – the sky above, a village nearby, the world hereafter, the day after
4. cardinal number used for identifying or naming – chapter five, paragraph three. Ordinal numbers preceding the nouns are also used in such instances – the fifth chapter, the second line.
5. the adjective enough – I have time enough. Enough may also precede the noun head – I have enough time
*In relation to verb
A. after the linking verbs be, seem, appear, look
The boy is tall
Fair was she as yhe roses in May
B. after certain verbs and their objects, as objectives complements
The storm has made me uneasy
I was made uneasy by the storm
C. in the special verb-adjective combinations that express a state – hold tight, stand still, lie quiet.
She held the child tight
*In relation to pronouns
A. After the pronoun
He is looking for something new and exciting to do
B. Before the pronoun
Did you buy the green dress of the blue one?
FORM OF ADJECTIVE
Inflectional form
Descriptives adjectives have special forms only for comparison. These forms are given below :
Positive Degree
Two units are as tall as not so (or as) tall
Compared to an Equal degree as beautiful as not so (or as) beautiful as
Comparative Degree
Two units are more taller than less tall than
Compared to an enequal deegre more beautiful than less beautiful than
Superlative Degree
Two units are the tallest the least tall
Units are compared to an the most beautiful the least beautiful
Enequal degree
The rules for contructing the comparative and superlative degree of objective are :
Comperative Degree Superlative Degree
Adjective of Add –er to the objective Add –est to the adjective
one syllable Add than after the adjective Add the before the adjective
(tall)er than the (tall)-est
Adjective of Add more before the adjective Add the most before the adjective
Three or more Add than after the adjective
Syllables more (beautiful) than the (most) beautiful
DERIVATIONAL FORM OF ADJECTIVE
1. Suffixes changing nouns to adjectives
Al, ar, ary, ed, en, esque, ful, ish, istic, less, like, ly, ous, ward, wide, y.
Monumental, familiar, elementary, talented, friendly, famous, useless.
2. Suffixes changing verbs to adjectives
Able, ible, ent, ant, ed, ile, ing, ive, ory.
Sensible, dpendent, frustrated, hostile, boring, attractive, congratulatory.
MARKERS OF ADJECTIVES
Adjective are signaled by adverbs of degree like very, quite, rather,extremely. These adverbs also mark other adverbs.
Adjective a very charming girl
Participle *a very burning house (very is ungrammatical here)
Geund *a very dancing school (very is ungrammatical here)
Special Usage of Adjective
The use of this adjectives of indefinite quantity is determined by whether they appear with noncountable nouns or with plural countable noun :
Noncountable nouns Plural Countable nouns
(singular form, no sending) (plural sending)
Much furniture is needed Many chairs are needed
(A) Little furniture is needed (A) few chairs are needed
Less furniture is needed Fewer chairs are needed
Much and many may also modify the adjective more :
Much __ more __ furniture
Many __ more __ chairs
Adjectives used in the comparison of nouns
Like, similar, same
like
Mary’s hat is similar to Jane’s (hat)
The same as
Alike
Mary’s hat and Jane’s (that) are similar
The same
ADVERB
TYPES OF ADVERBS
1. Classified by Meaning
Manner-Quickly, Neatly, Awkwardly
The Manner adverb has the most charcteristic advervbial foem (an –ly ending added to a descruptive adjective).
Place and Direction
Here, Away, Outside, Left, Straight, West
Among the adverbs of place and direction may be included some prepositional forms appearing after the verb-He came in; They walked down.
2. Classified by Function
Sentence Adverbs
These adverbs often have a loose grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence, and are looked upon as modifying the whole sentence rather than the verb-fortunately, presumbly, actually, obviously, evidently.
Conjunctive Adverbs
These adverb establish a relationship between one sentence or clause and teh preceding sentence or caluse. As in the case of sentence adverbs, they probably should be considered ad modifying the whole sentence or cklause rather than the verb alone.
Explanatory Adverbs
These adverbs illustrate or enumerate-namely, for example, as, i.e. (= that is), e.g. (for example) viz. (= namely)
Relative, Interrogative Adverbs
When, Where, Why, How
Relative Adverb-These adverbs introduce adjective clauses.
We visited the house where a famous poet once lived
Interrogative Adverb
In question-When will he arrive?
In noun clauses derived from question-I asked when he would
Exclamatory adverb –How
This adverb is used with adjectives and adverbs
How beautifully she dresses!
How beautiful she is!
FUNCTION OF ADVERBS
1. Adverbs as modifier of a verb
Sentence : The boy threw the ball quickly or The boy quickly threw the ball
Adverb as modifier (intensifier) of an adjective or an adverb
Intensifying adverbs of degree modify adjectives or adverbs in the same way as very in the diagram below.
2. Adverb as modifier of an entire sentence
Sentence : Fortunately, the boy threw the ball quickly.
POSITION OF ADVERBS
The adverb has a greater degree of maneuverability than any of the other parts of speech. It can fill one of three positions.
1. Adverbs of Manner
Final Position : The army advanced toward the enemy slowly and silently
Mid Position (mostly for one-word adverbs). The army slowly and silently advanced toward the enemy.
2. Adverbs of place and direction
Final position : Go home (or there, here, away, inside, east)
Initial position is occasionally used. In such cases the word order is often reserved :
There sat a mean-looking man.
3. Adverb of Time
· Definite Time
Final Position : We submitted the report to the committee yesterday.
Initial Position : Yesterday we submitted the report to the committee.
Mid-position is rare for definite time – We have today sent the books you requested.
· Indefinite Time
Adverb like soon, recently
Mid Position: We soon found our mistake.
Initial position: Soon we found our mistake. We found our mistake soon.
Mid position: We next take up the use of adverbs.
Final position: We take up the use of adverbs next.
4. Adverb of frequency
Mid-position: They often (or sometimes) have trouble with their television set.
Always and never appear mostly in mid position: He always (or never) does his work well.
Initial Position: Often (or sometimes) They have trouble with their television set.
Final position: Tehey have trouble with their television set.
Mid position is rare for word groups such as many times, once or twice.
FORM OF ADVERBS
The adverb has an inflectional form onnly for comparison. Short adverbs (mostly one-syllable adverbs) that have the same form as adjectives are compared by the addition of –er, -est. These adverbs are of several types.
Adverbs of manner-hard, fast
One group of manner
DERIVATIONAL OF ADVERBS
Most adverbs of manner, many sentence adverbs, and some adverbs of frequency and degree are formed by adding the derivational suffix –ly to a descriptive adjective:
Manner adverbs : intelligently, laughingly, cold-bloodedly
Other adverbs : allegedly, frequently, extremely, fully..
Because of their special meanings, some descriptive adjectives are not used adverbially with –ly adverbial forms-inferior, colonial, sick, indicative.
A few spelling rules need to be observed when adding –ly to adjectives.
Final y preceded by a consonant is changed to i-happily, busily, merrily. Some adverbs from one-syllable adjectives in y may be written with a y or an i –gayly or gaily, dryly or drily (but coyly).
With adjective ending in ble, ple,tle, dle, the le is dropped before –ly, – possibly, simply, gently, idly
With adjectives ending in –ic, -al is added before –ly, -basically, hygienically. In the case of adjectives that end in either –ic or –ical – geographic(al), historic(al) – The –ly is added to the –ical form – geographically, historically.
Some caution must be observed in adding –ly to adjectives with other endings:
With adjectives ending in silent e, the e must be retained before –ly, - extremely, entirely, sincerely.
With adjectives ending in l, the l must be kept before –ly, beautifully, accidentally, totally.
Derivational suffixes other than –ly that distingush adverbs are - ward(s) - frontward(s), backwards(s), do
In formal usage, the manner adverbs of this type are avoided; instead, a phrase with the word manner or way is used-He behaved in a friendly way; He spoke in a lively manner
MARKERS OF ADVERBS
Adverbs of degree mark the adverb just as they do the adjective-very quickly, too slowly, quite well, much more pleasantly.
REFERENCE :
Azar, Betty (1989). Understanding and Using English Grammar. New Jersey:Pretice-Hall, Inc.
Azar, Betty (1989). Fundamentals of English Grammar. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Frank, Marcella, (1972). Modern English: a practical reference guide. New Jersey :Prentice-Hall, Inc.
